Sept.29+Egger+Ch.+8-9

Jennifer Crapse **jennifercrapse@yahoo.com   Chapter 8 The Consolidation of Traditions (page 199-204)
 * 
 * Alisha Hasson **  alishahasson@gmail.com  
 * Josh Schilling **  schilling86@gmail.com  
 * Austin Williams **   ilovetexas1@hotmail.com   
 * Samuel Dodge **  <span style="color: #343434; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span class="yshortcuts" style="-moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; background: none transparent scroll repeat 0% 0%; border-bottom: #0066cc 1px dashed;">samueldodge@hotmail.com   <span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mike Brodie ** <span style="color: #343434; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span style="color: #343434; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span class="yshortcuts" style="-moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; background: none transparent scroll repeat 0% 0%; border-bottom: #0066cc 1px dashed;">mikebbrodie@gmail.com   <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
 * <span style="color: #7f7f7f; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Stephen Reimann ** <span style="color: #343434; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span style="color: #343434; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> chubs85@msn.com   <span style="color: #7f7f7f; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
 * <span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Chapter 8: The Consolidation of Traditions **

Science and Philosophy: After the translation movement of the 9c. From all things Greek to Arabic, Greek thought flowed & clashed at times into the Arab world. After a second translation movement from Arabic to Latin (13th c)Arabic thought flowed out to rest of the world.

Mathematics and the Natural Sciences • Ibn al-Haytham (973-?) was a Shi’it who dropped out of his religious career due to distaste for religious contention and became a famous mathematician, astronomer and physicist in Basra & Egypt during Al-Hakim (Fatimid caliph-Imam) reign. He proved scientists such as Ptolemy and Eucid wrong and is best known for his optical theories (light, refraction, reflection etc.) • Al-Biruni (973-1048) multilingual, multitalented scholar with a particular love for geology (he measured everything and later estimated the radius of the earth) obtained prominent positions in Iranian courts, but in 1017 he was in Khwarazm as it was besieged & conquered by Mahmud of Ghazana. He became a slave under Mahmud and published famous works in physics, astronomy math medicine & history in captivity. • Umar Khayyam (1048-1122) was an astronomer/geometry genius. He created the solar day, creaked math codes. Edward FitzGerald translated some of his writings. By 25 he was appointed to serve Saljuq sultan Malik-Shah… he moved to Merv (blossoming intellectual center)

Philosophy • Ibn Sina (980-1037)Child protégé (Doctor at 16) turned adult genius in medicine, metaphysics and philosophy. Authored renowned medical books that were used in Western Europe. He was highly noted for his philosophical works where he tried to reconcile Islamic doctrines by infusing the Neoplatonic & Aristotelian systems (proved challenging). BFF with Al-Biruni (above) • Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) tirelessly defended traditional religious doctrine/theology by pitting it against what he saw as blasphemous philosophers/ies such as Neo-Platonism/ Ibn Sina (above). • Ibn Rushd (1126-1198) tries to reconcile Islamic doctrine with the philosophies of the day. His books were burned at one point, but he continued his crusade of religious/philosophical reconciliation. He counters Al-Ghazali (above), argued that philosophers could live peacefully with theologians because the Quran ’s meaning is deep and could be better extracted when all three mind-types worked together 1 philosophical 2 theological 3 faithful. • The Maghrib and other areas became increasingly hostile towards philosophers after Ibn Rushd. Hence, pure philosophical writings died down and came to a halt in 13c.

The Sunni Resolution to the Tension between Reason and Revelation • Sunni Islam does see some reconciliation between philosophy/theology and Ibn Rushd and al-Ghazahi (mentioned above). In the end al-Ghazali admits some of his metaphysics ideas were shaped by Neoplatonism. Two great philosophers al Shahrastani and <span class="yshortcuts" style="-moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; background: none transparent scroll repeat 0% 0%; border-bottom: medium none;">Abu Bakr al-Razi continue the philosophy theology debate. Theology seems to come out on top and is seen as more useful. __Consolidating the Institution : Sufism__ <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· al-Hallaj embraced and exploited Sufism. He proclaimed to be God while in a mystic Sufi-trance which caused Sufi-persecution. After two centuries, Sufism became less threatening to the ulama (some ulama actually became Sufis). Remember Sufism is basically a focus on mysticism, or an addition to ones Islamic practices. <span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; msobidifontfamily: Symbol; msofareastfontfamily: Symbol; msolist: Ignore;">· A powerful endorsement of the Sufi path was al-Ghazani. He contributed to the philosophical writing in the Kalam and wrote //The Revival of the Religious Sciences// which was a book about the importance of living ones religion over become a theologian in ones religion. The Almoravids, and other highly stratified social groups, were threatened by these teachings but dissenters loved such teachings.

<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">p.206-214 The Emergence of Lodges and Tariqas A Handbook for Sufi Novices <span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> __Consolidating the Institution: Shi’ism__ Buyids ruled Iraq and western Iran from 945 to 1055 Fatimids controlled Africa, Egypt and parts of Syria 909-1171 Isma'ili dynasty of the Sulayhids ruled Yemen from 1063-1138 Hamdanids ruled norther Syria second half of tenth century Assassins had a presence in Iran and Syria from 1090-1256 Small Shi'ite states were scattered through out Dar-al Islam. Twelver Shi’ites From 870-940 leaders know as the Imamiya claimed that the hidden Imam was trying to communicate to his community through certain spokesmen. Twelver Shi'ism flourished in Iraq and western Iran for over a century. During the Buyid period Twelver scholars were able to answer many very important questions converning the hidden Imam after 874. The hidden Imam communicated through dreams and visions to highly educated and spiritual ulama. When the Seljuqs moved into Baghdad Twevlers moved to Hilla to escape persecution. The Hidden Imam is aslo considered the Mahdi. When he returns to the earth just before the day of Judgment he will bring justice to our corrupt world. Durning the tenth and eleventh century Twelvers began to really unite under one set of doctorine concerning the Hidden Imam. Thus bringint them strength and unity. With Twelver Shi'ism, Sunni Muslims didn't see them as a threat and persecution subsided. This allowed for by the thirteenth century for Twelver Shi'ism to become the strongest and largest of the Shi'ite groups. The Isma’ilis Durning the eleventh and twelft century the Isma'ilis enjoyed great power and influence. During this period the Fatamid's experienced a number of schism and upsets. in 1094 Yemeni's asserted that an infant son had been born who was the next legitamte ruler of the empire. The child, al-Tayyib, never appeard in public and followers claimed he was the next Imam. The widley scattered Nazari Isma 'ili stae of the Assassins lasted from 1094 to 1273. They were destoyed by Mongol invaders and the Mamluke leader Baybars. Althought the Nazari lived in remote areas they were able to cultivate a remarkably intelectual soceity. After Mongol invations they survived by remaining undergound. Not literlly, but out of site from the invaders. Eventually they migrated to South Asia. By then end of the thirteenth century, two main surviving groups of Isma'ilis were the Nazaris and the Tayyibis who both gravitated twords the cost of India. The Impact of “The Foreign Sciences” and Jurisprudence <span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Shi'ism was greatly influenced by the new intellectual currents of the ninth and tenth centuries. By the tenth century Isma'ilis were adopting Neoplatonism into their thought. The Isma'ilis were more attracted to complex cosmological doctorines adapted from Neoplatonism and even Indian philisophical systems. The Transmission of Knowledge Schools <span style="color: #c00000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">p.223- 231-Summary


 * The Legacy to Europe**
 * Even though the study of science and philosophy was restricted in the Dar al-Islam, Western Europe (due to it's lack of preservation of material from its Greco-Roman heritage during the early medieval era) was beginning to notice Muslim contributions in these fields.
 * As early as the 10th century monks from France were crossing the Pyrenees to study "Arabic learning" and translated these texts from arabic to latin throughout the 10th and 11th centuries. The most important of these translations were those of Galen by Constantine the African.
 * Two developments in Christian Europe provided the stimulus for a wholesale appropriation of Arabic texts: 1) Europe was beginning to experience and economic revival. 2) European military expansion began annexing formerly Muslim territories.
 * When Toledo fell to the Reconquista in 1085, a more massive process of translation began that matched the accomplishments of the Bayt al-Hikma two centuries earlier. The translations became systemized and translation centers began to be established, again the most famous being at Toledo. The Toledan school was most known for its translation of the works of Aristotle.
 * They would translate from Arabic to a romance language (usually castilian or catalan) and from there to Latin. Alternatively much of the Arabic texts had already been translated to Hebrew and could be translated directly from Hebrew to Latin.
 * Many of the Arabic terms usid in texts of various origins had no equivalents in Latin or in the spoken languages of Europe. As a result, they were introduced into the Latin texts almost unchanged, introducing numerous new words in to Europe. (table of words on page 224).
 * The results of the translations caused an uproar. The primary battleground was the University of Paris, where the faculty liberal arts fought the faculty of theology over the issue of introducing Aristotle into Christian Europe. Aristotle, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) were intellectual heroes to the former and villains to the latter. In 1215, the university prohibited the teaching of Ibn Sina's recently translated commentaries on Aristotle, upon pain of excommunication from the Church, causing several resistance groups to spring up. The most famous being Thomas Aquinas.
 * Eventually, a Western philosophical tradition emerged that was independent of theology, and the scientific revolution is widely regarded to be at least in part the ultimate result of the assimilation of an Aristotelian attitude that takes the material world more seriously than did the Platonic one.
 * In western Europe, universities were created out of cathedral schools in the 12th century and taught the seven liberal arts: the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and the quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, music, and astronomy). One could also find law, theology, and medicine. Unlike the madrasa, then, the cathedral school and the university provided a place where scientists, philosophers, and theologians studied in adjacent facilities. As a result, intellectuals in all disciplines were forced to grapple with issues raised in the others. Faculties were able to set their own curriculum, and science and philosophy were able to develop with institutional support despite religious objections.
 * The lack of a nurturing institutional environment did gradually impose handicaps on their further development in the Dar al-Islam.
 * Conclusion**
 * The history of Islam shows strong parallels with the history of Christianity, in which the first three centuries were crucial for narrowing the possible routes of development of doctrine, and the next three centuries witnessed the development of its most characteristic institutions and doctrines. Both traditions have continued to evolve and adapt to changing circumstances.
 * A more well-known testament to the creativity of Muslim intellectuals during the 10th-13th centuries was the intense engagement with their thought that took place in European universities after the century-long process of translating their works into Latin.
 * The violence of the period did have consequences. The rise of the khanaqa coincided with the decrease in the scope allowed for philosophical axploration among Sunnis.
 * Philosophical reasoning, on the other hand, was viewed by many people as a threat to the community rather than as an instrument of defense and security. It is a particularly characteristic response in societies whose religion is based on divine revelation, because of the difficulties in defining the proper scope of reason as opposed to that of revelation.
 * Christians in western Europe no longer worried about the survival of their civilization. They were actually confident and aggressive. Muslims of the 13th century, on the other hand, had to wonder what God had in store for them next. It was a time to conserve what was certain and avoid speculation since the latter could injure the faith. Twelver Shi'ite scholars could exercise reason more confidently in this regard than their sunni counterparts, for they knew that the Hidden Imam wouldn't allow them to mislead his community.
 * Iraq ceased to be the center of intellectual creativity. The intellectual 'stars' came more from Andalus and Iran. The Persian renaissance began in the mid 9th century, thereafter work in the Persian language became very creative. For the 1st time, the religion and culture of Islam became available in a language other than Arabic. Arabic continued to be the primary language of the religious disciplines and of science and philosophy, but Persian became the language of belles lettres and was increasingly used as a language of scholarship, as well.
 * The Muslim Commonwealth**
 * By the Abbasid period, no single ethnic group could generate a 'esprit de corps' to create unity despite internal feuding like the Arabs had. Moreover, the fact that the new empire attempted to base its legitimacy on a monotheistic religion practically guaranteed eventual fragmentation. Monotheism is typically plagued by clashes ober the correct interpretation of the one true faith. Ethnic, religious, and purely personal factors had splintered the political unity of the Muslim Umma within a short time.
 * Among many Muslims, the sense of belonging to a single community provided a powerful bond that transcended many of the linguistic ans cultural differences that could have caused division. A Muslim empire ruled by an Arab oligarchy was gradually replaced by what some call a "Muslim commonwealth", in which individual Muslims found a common identity with others across the Dar al-Islam. Even the fact that there were multiple caliphs didn't create sharp divisions among Muslims.
 * Despite the decline of the political importance of the Arabs themselves, their language permeated the entire Dar al-Islam as the primary language of learning, even in the face of the persistence and even revival of certain local languages. By mastering Arabic, on could attain high status. Travel between independent Muslim states (and even between Muslim states and their non-Muslim neighbors) was practically unrestricted.
 * The Muslim world developed a remarkable cultural unity despite the overthrow of the 'Arab empire' of the Umayyads and the rabid disintegration of Abbasid power. Even though devastation occured with the changing of ruling ethnic groups, the development of a distinctive islamic culture continued without interruption or reliance on any given political order.
 * Although Muslim states feuded with each other, they didn't hinder travel, trade, or the pilgrimage to Mecca. People traveled widely throughout the Dar al-Islam and relayed developments in law, science, engineering, devotional material, etiquette and numerous other facets of the various evolving Islamic societies over vast distances.
 * Frontiers and Identities**
 * Today we take for granted clearly demarcated boundaries, patriotism, nationalist emotion, and numberous other characteristics of the modern state. These are recent phenomena. When studying the premodern history of any region it is important to unerstand that boundaries and personal identities functioned quite differently from today.
 * Frontiers Defining Dar al-Islam**
 * Rather than relying on borders, rulers had a sense of where their effective power lay and where it diminished. Cities were the seat of power for Mulsim rulers, and in their vicinity the troops wielded effective control, but the further away from the city, the less control was exercised. This was particularly the case when the territory at a distance from the capital was mountainous or arid, for such areas were too unproductive to justify the expense of administration and they provided havens for rebels.
 * So there existed 'penumbras of power' between rival polities were legitimate authority was ambiguous and where warlords, bandits, etc operated with impunity. So the government attempted to play one group against another. This created at least temporary cooperation through bribes and punitive expeditions.
 * The Seas**
 * The Indian Ocean was viewed almost exclusively as a highway of commerce, whereas the Mediterranean offered both commerce and the threat of war. As a result, Muslim settlements spread along the east African coast, this fostered the development of the Swahili culture. Heavily influenced by Arabic, the Swahili language and material culture came to characterize the Ilamized population of the East African coast after 1100.
 * The much smaller Mediterranean Sea was riinged with numerous states. Their proximity resulted in frequent contacts of either hostile or commercial natures. Frequently both at the same time.
 * By the era of the Crusades, Muslims were finding that the Europeans had goods they could use. The major commodities were timber, furs, and metals. European silks became increasingly popular, and Italian-made arms were imported in large quantities, despite papal threats of excommunication to any Christian who sold arms to the enemy Muslims. Although Muslim fleets had the advantage in the Mediterranean until the era of the Crusades, the Italian city-states began to dominate both the eastern and western basins.



__A History of the Muslim World to 1405 p. 231-239 Summary__

- “There were two types of land frontiers: the kind that separated the Dar al-Islam (Land of Islam) from the Dar al-Kufr (Land of Unbelievers), and the kind that separated the realm of one Muslim ruler from another.” (pg 231) o Dar al-Kufr § It was widely agreed that faithful Muslims were under an obligation to conduct jihad into Dar al-Kufr § Only in the Dar al-Kufr could one enslave people § Raids by Arabs and non Arabs common along these borders § “nevertheless…life along the frontier [was] not characterized by unremitting hostility” (pg 232) o Iberian Peninsula (Modern Spain) was the main border between the Christian and Muslim authority § Raids from both sides very common § Sometimes Muslim rulers united with Christian rulers against other Muslim rulers. § “El Cid” or Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar – a Christian Nobleman who left his land of Castile and moved to Zaragoza and served Muslim ruler there for over a decade, fighting both Christian and Muslim rivals for his master. · In 1094 he defied both Muslim and Christian rulers and seized the Muslim city on Valencia and ruled it until his death in 1099. o Anatolian Frontier (Modern Day Turkey) § Border (not well defined) between Dar al-Islam and the Byzantine Empire · Jihad and ghaza (raiding not necessarily for the promotion or protection of Islam) were common · Dar al-Kufr sometimes regarded as Dar al-Harb (Land of War) o Jihad therefore became an obligation of all Muslims § Gazis were raiders of the no-man’s land between the Muslim and Christian polities. · Saw raid as a religious act like Arabs · Accepted non-Muslims into their raiding parties · Religion of the frontier differed greatly than Islam of the cities - Because of its serious nature, Sahri’a gave many rules concerning Jihad o Women, children, old, disabled could not be killed unless unexpectedly found engaged in war o Opportunity to accept Islam must first be presented to the enemies o Muslim rulers could dispose of male prisoners as he pleased but they could not be allowed to return to the realm of the infidel. o Women and Children only could be enslaved or freed as tributary subjects - Jihad was an obligation to all the Umma, no one ruler could command it o Mujahidun – those engaged in Jihad o When enough people are engaged in Jihad it is no longer obligatory upon others. o To fight until all non-Muslims become Muslim or pay the poll tax - Boundaries between Muslim polities very imprecise - Travel almost completely uninhibited for all people o Christians and Jews had only to demonstrate that they had paid their taxes - Ideas of national citizenship were rare in the ancient world (Rome being one of the few exception) and people derived their identity more from familial lineage, residence in a particular village or city, religion, and language - Identities identified in the Shari’a were the most important for Muslims, religious affiliation, gender, and slavery. - Scriptures of Islam, like Judaism and Christianity, do not condemn slavery - It was common in the ancient world - Shari’a discouraged and eventually prohibited the slavery of Muslims and dhimmis (a non- [|Muslim] subject of a state governed in accordance with [|Shari’a law] ). - Unlike Christianity, slavery was forbidden as punishment for debt or crime o To be a slave one was either born a slave, purchased from abroad, or became a slave through conquest. - Mostly used for domestic or military purposes although many were forced to mine salt and precious metals - Slave came from Asia and Africa but most came from Europe - Shari’a protected slavery o A salve could not own property or inherit it, Courts would usually not accept their testimonies, Owners had unlimited sexual access to his female slaves, they could not exercise religious functions o Shari’a admonished slave holders to treat their slaves humanely o Families commonly adopted their slaves o A master who stated in from of a witness, even in jest, that his slave was free had to release him. o A concubine who gave birth to a child of her master could not be sold thereafter § On his death he and her children were freed and her children had legal right to his property § Slave sons of masters could even hold office · The last two Umayyad caliphs were sons of slave mothers o You could not mutilate a slave (such as castration although there were many eunuch slaves, probably purchased outside Dar al-Islam) § Eunuchs had some upward mobility - There were massive slave armies in Dar al-Islam
 * The Land:**
 * Jihad in the Shari’a:**
 * Frontiers within Dar al-Islam:**
 * Identities:**
 * Slavery:**

<span style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">__Ethnicity__ ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">-People of the East Mediterranean referred to North Africa and Andalus as the //Maghrib//, or “West.” They called the Byzantine empire, the Italian Peninsula, and western Europe //Rum//. -Muslims conceptualized the area of “India” from the Sassanid term “Hind” (and this term later included parts of Southeast Asia and Indonesia—hence our term //Indies//). -In Andalus, Berbers felt that the Arabs didn’t accept them. The Turkish Saljuks considered themselves superior to the peoples whom they conquered (in Southwestern Asia 11th century) Ghaznavid and Saljuq regimes cultivated the Persian culture and adopted Persian as the language of administration (except for in Shari’a courts)
 * Revival of certain aspects of Persian culture in 9th and 10th centuries. Persian remained the spoken language east of Iraq (even though Arabic was the lingua franca throughout the Dar al-Islam). The Tahirid regime (served as governors in Abbasid caliphate) began patronizing Persian literature, the Saffarid state.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">-Generally people migrated from the village to the city. Cities served as: centers of government, commerce, and culture. They had higher death rates (diseases spread faster because of more people), more vices/sins.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">__The City and the Countryside__ **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">-Naval warfare in Mediterranean hurt coastline cities. -Each city had it’s “personality” (like Boston/San Francisco today), most were in arid to semiarid climates. While the majority of cities—constructed out of mud-brick—had low skylines, Yemen had some 10 story buildings. -The center of public life was the mosque: setting for schools, higher education, forum for public opinion, restful havens etc. -Andalus and 14th century Muslim-India were noted for their cleanliness. -Public bath—used like in Roman times for relaxation and social interaction -Cemeteries situated outside the walls of the town. --Most people became organized into quarters that were based on kinship, ethnic group, religion, or occupation. These quarters each contained a few hundred-few thousand residents. -these quarters became self-reliant and developed a sense of territoriality and identity. -//Futawwa// orders: these were groups of young men who served as peace keeping forces in the quarters (other futawwa orders promoted sports, crafts etc…). Unfortunately, some of these acted like youth gangs rather than disciplined militias. -//very// labyrinthine road systems. -City design concerned with gender segregation and privacy.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">__The City__ **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">-Vast majority of people in the Dar al-Islam lived in rural areas -The food villagers produced was essential to the town’s survival. //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Iqta //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">: originally a tract of land that was temporarily assigned to a military officer in return for equipping, paying, and supplying a number of soldiers to the service of the sultan. Early holders—knowing that they would soon give back the land—exploited the land as much as possible. Later, the Saljuqs made iqta’s inheritable, so people began taking care of the land (so their children could later use it).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">__The Countryside__ **

<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">p.248-255 <span style="color: #948a54; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">__Conversion to Islam__ <span style="color: #948a54; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">**Conversion to Islam p. 248-255** • **A Muslim Minority** – Under Umayyad rule, conversion was slow because it was optional to convert and easier to pay taxes as a non-Muslim than to convert and not pay. Jews and Christians held important government offices. Christians - Financial bureaucracy and Jews – physicians to Muslim rulers because of broad education. Another reason for not converting over to Islam was peasants in most areas had little contact with the empire. o Muslims and other religions interacted very well with little problems. Muslim men could marry non-Muslim women, but Muslim couldn’t marry non-Muslim men. It was expected the family would follow the religion of the head of the house. • **The Pace of Conversion Quickens** – Some though things that encouraged conversion were escaping taxes, gain equality with Muslims, or improve social status, follow the community. • **The Issue of Authority in the Muslim World** – As long as Islam was small, Muslims stayed more unified, but as Muslim’s reached half or more of the population in the areas there began to be pulls in Identities – familial, social and ethnic. They were also more likely to break away from political authority. o There began to be disputes between the Sunni and the Shi’ites over who was in power and if they were going to follow them or not. Most of the time they stayed separated and just fought each other. • Shi’ite leaders were referred to as Imam(equal to a caliph) and their scholars would define the importance of that position, who was central to their whole belief system. Their responsibilities: protect the traditional interpretation of Islam from the designs of innovators; enforcement of the provision of the Shari’a; the defense of the borders of the Dar al-Islam; fought unbelievers until accept Muslim rule; the levying of taxes; the regulation of public expenditure; the appointment of people to public office; and the regulation of public expenditure. o **Sultan** – a title adopted by leaders of the Saljuqs(Sunni). The word means “power.” They claimed power at eh pleasure of the caliph. o By this time the Caliph was a figurehead, but played a symbolic role as a line of succession of authority from the time of the Prophet. Thought as supreme head of the Muslims. • **Conclusion** – At the early part of the 8th century there was no more a single “Islamic” empire. The size of the empire provided little security, and common interests were complicated because of other cultures. The Muslim world did facilitate travel, commerce, scholarship, and technological innovation. o The development of “law” was not done by the government but by independent scholars: the jurist.