Oct.+1+Egger+Ch.+10-11

** 1. Jennifer Crapse ** jennifercrapse@yahoo.com **6. Mike Brodie ** mikebbrodie@gmail.com ** 11. John Nash **  hummers310@yahoo.com 1:   **Chapter 10: The Great Transformation** · By the thirteenth century, vast Muslim areas had been conquered by the Christians and Mongols. In the fourteenth century, anarchy in the Muslim empire and the plague left the Muslim world under-populated and weak. It was around this time that Timur Lang began his vicious campaigns from the Delhi to Damascus. · Chinggis Khan (a.k.a. Genghis Khan) Dies 1227… his sons (Jochi,Tolui, Chaghatay and Ogedai) take over. The title of Great Khan was passed down to Chinggins Khan’s descendents. His great-grandson Mongke becomes the Great Khan (1251-1259) and sets out to conquer all of Eurasia. He sends his brother Qubilai to conquer the Sung dynasty in China. Qubilai founds Yaun dynasty. His other brother Hulagu was sent to subjugate SW Asia. The Great Khan domain: Mongolia and China. The Chaghatay Khanate: stretched from China to Afghanistan. Other Mongol domains covered places like Iraq, Anatolia, Iran etc. · Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan) grandson Bantu’s successors rule the Mongol dynasty known as the Golden Hord. They are also known as the Tatars. The core region of the Golden Hord was the Qipchaq Turks...., hence another name for the Golden Hord is the Qipchaq Khanate. · The first century and a half of the Q. Khanate’s history is scanty due to Timur Lang’s destruction of its cities in 1390’s, but we know that the Qipchaq Khanate’s successful invasion of Russia was horrific and extensive. · The Qipchaq Khanate, or the Great Horde taxed their subjects and had direct control over Qipchq steppe area (Area: Russia, Poland, Lithuania, Lativa), but unlike the Mongols in China, the Qipchaq Khanate Mongols did not assimilated into the Russian culture. · Qipchaq Khanate was primarily interested in grazing land (remember they were pastoral not agriculturalists), but they saw the benefit in other forms of commerce and established trade cities example: Saray. · The Russian Orthodox Church supported Mongol rule because the Golden Horde was religiously tolerant and exempted the church from taxes. · The Mamuke regime also kept good relations with the Qipchaq Khanate. · Important Islamic conversions… Batu’s brother Berke (1257-1267) converts to Islam. Another Golden Horde leader named Khan Uzbeg (1313-1341) also converts. He is religiously tolerant and builds up Islam/Shari’s courts in modern day Volgograd. · Mongols begin to lose their power during Uzbeg’s reign (above) because of inner divisions and Timur Lang’s successfully take over. 2: The Il-Khanate Mongol authority only existed in former Khwarazmian Empire anarchy reigned. Hulagu proved to a gifted administrator to the lands he devastated. Est. headquarters in NW Iran= Il-Khanid Empire.Patron of art & architecture, built astonomical observatory which became most highly regarded scientific institution in Muslim world. Tried to 'fix' his realm, rebuild but was unable in the 5 yrs. before his death. His successors lacked ability- for 30 yrs. khanate was subject to infighting and neglected. Early khans were hostile to Islam, primarily Buddhism w/ Nestorian women. Ghazan was greatest Il-Khan after Hulagu, was Buddhist but converted to Islam and ordered all non- Islamic holy buildings destroyed. Restored and rebuilt realm. Trade w/ China intensified. Uljaytu constructed new capital at Sultaniya- Chinese influence. At peak of regime family feuds broke out, Uljaytu's son was poisoned and Iran & Iraq were carved up among successor states.
 * 1) **A History of the Muslim World to 1405 (October 1st assignemnt) Chapter 10 &11..... everyone should have between 4-5 pages**
 * 2. Alisha Hasson ** alishahasson@gmail.com
 * 3. Josh Schilling ** schilling86@gmail.com
 * 4. Austin Williams ** ilovetexas1@hotmail.com
 * 5. Samuel Dodge ** samueldodge@hotmail.com
 * 7. Stephen Reimann ** chubs85@msn.com
 * 8. Tyler Higa ** flynhawaiian05@yahoo.com
 * 9. David ** **Forsyth** davewave386@hotmail.com
 * 10. Elizabeth Uibel **  elizabethuibel@gmail.com
 * 12. Thomas Nance **  tfyans@gmail.com
 * 13. Brian Wall **  guitarriff@msn.com    
 * The Mongol Khanates**
 * The Qipchaq Khanate **

The Chaghatay Khanate Extended over vast steppe land, some of world's most inaccessible mtns, and sophisticated urban oases. Khans stayed nomadic, no capitals. Kebek was 1st Chaghatay to prefer urban life and revived Samarqand and Bukhara. Ruling elite were coalition of Mongols, Turks, & Uighurs. Turkish culture was dominant. Shamanism remained strong among nomads. Tarmashirin was Buddhist, converted to Islam and required his leaders to convert also which agavated them. When Tarmashirin unsuccessfully attacked Delphi they revolted. After 7 yrs. of civil war the khanate split. Moghulistan remained a political actor for 2 more centuries. The more wealthy Transoxiana had no central gov. All 4 of the Mongol empires collapsed suddenly within a period of just over 30 yrs.

New Centers of Islamic Culture For 400 yrs. most influential forces shaping the Qur'an & hadith into a civilization had been the communities of Iraq & Iran. After their decline this shifted to the Mamluke Empire, Delphi Sultanate, and Ottoman Sultanate.

​  3: The Mamluke Empire 4: The Delhi Sultanate __Creation__- Arabs invade middle and lower indus valley 711-713 establishing an Islamic influence although remained on the periphery of the islamic world for several centuries. 9th c. Abbasids lose control to the Isma'ilis. 11th c. Mahmud fo Ghazna expands Muslim state into the Indus basin. The ghaznavids begin an era of 7 centuries of a series of powerful, autonomous Muslim states in South Asia. Usually ruled by Turks or Afghans, each attempting to maintan a Muslim court in an overwhelmingly Hindu society. The most congenial model being the Islamic-Persian style developed in NE Iran with the Samanid court of the 10th c. The greatest of these Muslim states was the Delhi Sultanate. Mahmud of Ghazna laid foundations in South Asia, raiding the Punjab area around 1002, and capturing Lahore in 1030. When the Saljuqs chase Mahmud's successor out of Khorasan ten years later, Lahore increasingly became the most important city in the remaining areas of the Gaznavid Empire, developing a thriving center of Islamic culture. 1173, an Afghan family from Ghur seizes power in Ghazna and conquers the Ghaznavid holdings in the Punjab by 1192. Then the Ghurids conquer Delhi in 1193 going as far east as Bihar on the lower Ganges. Had incredible military power since as they conquered the Punjab and Ganges, they were also taking Khorasan from the shahs of Khwarazm. Considered one of the greatest military powers till conquered by Chinggis Khan. Just as the Ghurids were poised to create a major state in South Asia their ruler is assasinated in 1206, as there was no heir the general who conquered Delhi took over. He in turn died in a polo accident in 1210, his former military slave Iltutmish then seizes power. Iltutmish is regarded to be the founder of the Delhi Sultanate. __The Sultuanate__- Delhi Sultanate composed of several different dynasties but is regarded as a single period in Muslim-Indian history because of the continuity of the ruling elite. Historians disagree on the issue of its duration. Some say 1210-1398 including three dynasties while others argue it lasted till 1526 including two more dynasties. Regardless each dynasty began of either Turkish or Afghan lineage. Despite the ethnic origins of the ruler's wives and concubines, the patrilineal system of tracing ancestry made it natural for each generation to see itself as the heir to the founder of the dynasty and to identify with his ethnic origin. The early Sultanate experienced political turbulence. From 1210-1320 was political tumult among the ruling elite. Amirs attempted to check each others power and often through violent means. 1236-1296 Ten sultans reigned, 8 averaged a term of less then 3 years, only 1 died a natural death. Despite constant internal conflict and violent changes in dynasties, the sultanate successfully withstood threats from the Mongols. The Mongols actuall sacked Lahore in 1241 but throughout the period the Chaghatay khanate's attacks were repulsed at least 9 times. In between internal confilct and Mongol attack, the sultanate expanded its area of control. 1230 Iltutmish dominated a wide arc based on the indus and Ganges river balleys. He also won recognition from the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad as the legitimate Muslim ruler of the area. By early 14th c. the sultanate had expanded to Gujarat and the Deccan plateau. Power was exercised either directly or by extracting tribute from Hindu or Muslim princes who could in turn rule with little supervision. The most influential of the Delhi Dynasties was of the Tughluq family, from 1320-1388. Muhammad ibn Tughluq (1325-1351) was the most famous of the family. Very intelligent and creative but his administration was a disappointment. On one hand he continued his father's conquest extending his authority to almost all of South Asia. Also defeating the Chaghatay ruler Tarmashirin in 1327, indirectly resulting in the division of the Chaghatay khanate into Trasoxiana and Mogulistan. An accomplished scholar, proficient in both Arabic and Persian, he recruited numerous new qadis from abroad to facilitate the implementation of Islamic law. He was conciliatory toward his Hindu and Jain subjects, offering high positions in government and allowing them to build new temples and inviting them to court to debate philosophy and theology. Muhammad found it difficult to devise realistic policies for some important issues. His need for symmetry made it impossible to tolerate the variety of relations existing between the central gov't and the many provinces that were at least partially subject to it. He instituted a uniform policy of direct rule for all regions, provoking resentment in the areas that had ben allowed partial autonomy from previous Delhi sultans. The biggest problem was in the Deccan plateau where the Hindu rulers had no intention of yielding on the issue. Muhammad tried to resolve the problem by moving the capital to a more central location of Dawlatabad in the Deccan but was implemented in a 'heavy-handed' fashion causing resentment among his own followers. Several unpopular measures were followed by drought and famine (1335-1342), the suffering became the pretext for widespread rebellions throughout the northen tier of the sultanate. Forced Muhammad to lead repeated campigns to the northern and southern provinces responding with brutal punishment giving him a reputation of cruelty. By the end of his rule he lost control of his southern possessions and the support of most of his remaining subjects. Muhammad's cousin Firuz (1351-1388) was the opposite. Firuz practiced clemency instead of brutality, although in response to Muslim criticisms of his cousin's religious toleration he destroted newly built Hindu temples and promoted proselyting efforts among the Hindu. He tried to assist the agricultural sector of the economy through irrigation projects, and promoting employment by building a new capital city near Delhi. However he failed to ensure the continuing authority of Delhi. With the death of Firuz a power sturggle broke out allowing many Hindu and Muslim rulers to renounce their allegiance plunging the sultanate into a civil warthat lasted a decade. __Delhi__- Delhi wasn't a major trade route and wouldn't have been the center of the sultanate if not for the Mongol threat. The valleys of the Indus, Punjab, and the Gangetic plain were all rich agricultural regions supplying Delhi with wealth, and Gujarat (a famous entepot) gave the city access to the wider world of commerce. Commodities shipped there from SE Asia or E Africa would be sent to another port such as the Persian Gulf. Delhi attracted all types of people as the capital of the regime. Also a haven for refugees fleeing from Chinggis Khan and Hulagu. The sultans welcomed foreign scholars and artisans, whose work enhanced the regime. Most intellectuals came from Khorasan and Transoxiana, reinforcing the Persianate cast of the elite culture. Persian influenced poetry, music, historical works, and architecture flourished in Delhi, no contemporary Muslim city exceeded the architectural splendor of Delhi. The sultanate was distinctive in that not in several centuries had the Muslim rulers of any major state represented such a small minority of the population. At the height of the sultanate, the population was very complex linguistically. Over 1000 languages and dialects were spoken, however to the government the issue of religion was more complex. 13-14th c. Muslims were the minority, the ultimate responsibility of a Muslim ruler was to protect and advance the faith. Most seemed to include the enforcement of the Shari'a, the toleration of Jews and Christians within certain guidelines, and the eradication of polytheism. In the Delhi Sultanate the tension between religious duty and social reality reached a level above that of the rest of the Islamic world. The sultans depended on Hindus for all means of labor, in attempt to consolidate their holdings the later sultans practiced a pragmatic policy. Exemplified by the range of possibilities shown through Muhammad ibn Tughluq and his successor firuz. The former's generosity to Hindus and Jains created criticism from Muslims, and the Latters brutality caused civil war. The following disorder exposed northern India to perhaps the greatest catastrophe that it has ever experienced: the invasion of Timur Lang. 5: The Ottoman Sultanate Although the 14th c. was bad in Europe and China (plagues, famine, wars) it was much worse in the predominantly Muslim world. The plague (called Black Death because of the discolored swellings that developed on the infected) swept into southwestern Asia and Europe in 1347. -From Transoxiana to Egypt and Andalus, the Dar al-Islam suffered a seriouf blow from the pestilence. The Mamluke Empires experience sugest a population loss by the end of the centure of at least 1/3rd (comparable to that of Europe). -The Mamluke Empire then entered a period of sustained decline in population, wealth, and military power—at least fifty epidemics struck the empire over the next 170 years. -On bright spot—the Mamluke Empire witnessed a boom in construction. Merchants and artisans were the only groups who prospered during the period from the mid-fourteenth to late fifteenth century. -The plague cased numerous villages in Palestine to be abandoned, and much agricultural reverted to nomad control. -He came of age as the Mongol states were collapsing, and he found the heirs to those states to be easy prey. More impressive was the ease with which he defeated the Mamlukes, the Delhi Sultanate, and the Ottomans. 1370—declared his intention of restoring the glory of the Mongol empire. 1390s—let 2 primitive expeditions against Toqtamish of the Hord (Iran). Later, Timus destroyed all the commercial cities in the Horde from the Black Sea to the Arabl Sea. 1398—Invaded the Delhi Sultanate 1400—attacked the city of Aleppo 1401—Timus moved to Damascas—where he massacred all those inside (after they agreed to a truce) Learning of a rebellion in Baghdad—he ordered the city destroyed. Timur’s army pursued the remnants of the Ottoman army, and it appeared that the Ottomans were finished. 7: **In the Presence of Timur** • A story of **Ibn Khaldun** (one of the greatest scholars of the era) and how Timur treated him after Timur besieged Damascus. Timur desired that Ibn Khaldun write a detailed description of the Maghrib. Ibn Khaldun also wrote down his experience with the Timur. Timur was kind and generous to him, gave him food, a place in Timurs council for a while. Timur also gave him leave so he could back to his family and his people. Idn Khaldun portrayed Timur as having a human side as well. • Muslim regimes, Mongol regimes, civil war, the plague, and Timur Lang had transferred the political and social order. • When the Mongols went through in the 13th century, they came through and inflicted upon Iraq and Khorasan. This caused tens of thousands of intellectuals, craftsmen, and artists to flee to the nascent Mamluke, Ottoman, and Delhi regimes. Strengthening these regimes, but changing the ethnic compositions of these regions, but caused thriving centers of commerce and culture. • When Timur went through in the 14th century Timur laid waste on Iran and Iraq, this threatening the existence of the Mamluke, Ottoman, and Delhi states. By 1405, the death of Timur, Delhi ahd be reduced to a local pretender, Ottoman appeared to be destroyed, and Mamluke had failed to defend Damascus. • The period 1260-1405 shows a major watershed in Muslim history. By the 15th century political structure had been so shaken up that and observer of this time would wonder if Islam had a future. But of course it does, it was about to dominate the world for the next several centuries. • 1325 a Moroccan man by the name of **Ibn Battuta** went on the hajj. After his hajj he decided to travel the Muslim world. He went back home in 1349. His trips revealed the Muslim cultures of the 14th century when everything was falling apart for the Muslims. Yet the Shari’a provided cultural continuity when stats failed. He financed his travels as a qadi; he helped solve disputes according to Islamic law. He visited Sufi lodges and marveled at the variety of Sufi expression.
 * __Scourges__ **
 * __Plague__ **
 * __Timur Lang__ **
 * Conclusion**
 * Chapter 11: Unity and Diversity in Islamic Traditions**

8**:** **__Intellectuals Life in the Fourteenth Century__ Basically an opening paragraph stating that many European scholars in the 19th and 20th century claim that the rise of Europe in the 13th and 14th century left the Islamic civilization shattered and moribund but that is untrue. __The End of the Golden Age ?__ Even during turmoil Islamic law continued to thrive because they were not bound by only one particular regime. Cultural production in the Muslim world flourished and during the 13th & 14th century is when visual arts began to become really creative. Europeans interest in science and mathematics grew and by 17th century they had passed the Muslims as in these achievements. Muslims and Europeans had shared features though such as: monotheistic traditions,philosophy, medicine, and political thought. Muslims had a hard time keeping up with Europeans during the mid-10th century and on because of all the crusades and invasions they endured. Muslims became very conservative in their religious beliefs and philosophers were bound to ruling families whereas in European philosophers had established independent universities so they were free to study and speak their mind without fear of retaliation. Muslims did not fall from the top but rather were isolated from one another and therefore could not share their advances with each other. __ Against All Odds __ Even in times of violence and turmoil (such as the plague) Dar al-Islam continued to thrive both culturally and intellectually. Advances in architecture by the Mamluke Empire are still revered today. Sometimes harsh conditions made ideal situations for vibrant scholarship. __Ibn Tayimya__ ** ** 9: ** ** __Ibn Al-Shatir:__ ** Some of most important Muslim astronomers lived 13th-16th centuries. Ibn al-Shatir of Damascus (1306-1375) one of the most famous. He was a muwaqqit (timekeeper for mosque of Damascus) and chief of the mosque’s muezzins (who lead call to prayer on Fridays). Ibn al-Shatir made own sundial, quadrant. He’s part of Maragha school of astronomy, which involves lots of observational work. His main work was with orbits. Ptolemy has proposed that orbits where circular, with small orbits, called epicycles to accommodate irregularities in observations. Ibn al-Shatir didn’t think Ptolemy’s models accurate, so he developed a model of orbits based on Ptolemy’s that did not require eccentric orbits. Copernicus had some of Ibn al-Shatir’s work.
 * 1) **One of the great muslim scholars of the 14th century. **
 * 2) **He was committed to the cause of Islamic reform **
 * **<span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">he thought some practices were not sanctioned by legitimate faith, he wanted a return to early Islamic purity **
 * 1) **<span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> Argued that only the Qur'an and Hadith (interrupted by 1st generation scholars) were two sources of truth **
 * 2) **<span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">One of greatest contributions to Islamic history was his criticism of fellow jurists for accepting without question the decisions of jurists of previous generations. (basically that what they had learned was absolute truth, no questioning) **
 * 3) <span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> **<span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">He hated Mongol leader Ghazan, who claimed to be Muslim but did not follow the Shari'a **
 * 4) **<span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">He was considered borderline un-Islamic and feared and hated by many scholars because he always questioned their motives. In today's society many muslim activists revere him because he taught them to challenge the oppresive and corrupt government and advocate the creation of an Islamic state. **

__Ibn Khaldun:__ (1332-1406) from Tunis (essentially modern Morocco and Algeria). Well educated, served as government minister, and scholar. Went to Egypt, where professor of Maliki law. He is best known for Muquddima, his history of the Arabs and Berbers, which covers volumes of text. The text contains a survey of Islamic learning, the role of climate, geography, and economics in creating the unique characteristic of each individual society. Many consider text to be fist work of genuine social science.

__Hafez:__ greatest Persian lyric poet. He was a deeply spiritual Sufi but not an ascetic. He loved wine and sensual lifestyle, so criticized by ulama. Specialized in poetry known as Ghazal (lyrical poem of 6 -15 couplets). Wrote about everyday things, and uses many allusive images. Many poems ambiguous, which is essential part of Persian poetry. <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">**The People’s Poet—Hafez** § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">His poetry can be read on at least two levels: literal, and as metaphors for Sufi mystical theology. § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">After Hafez’s death, his poetry became popular in the Ottoman Empire and Muslim India § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Many people used his poems for divination (open a page at random and expect that poem to give them guidance for the day). § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Minor intellectual, but perhaps most widely traveled individual in modern times. § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Prior to his travels, he had prepared for a career as a qadi. In 1325 he went on the hajj, for the religious experience as well as the opportunity to study with famous scholars of the two Holy Cities and the Mamluk Empire. § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">After his completion of the hajj, however, he had “developed a passion for seeing the world.” He traveled for the next two decades from Egypt and Syria to Tanzania, China, the Maldive Islands, Sumatra, Mali, and many other countries. By the time he returned to Morocco he had traveled between 60,000-75,000 miles. § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">His travels occurred at the perfect time: during the golden ages of many of the countries, and before many influential leaders died (Mamluke al-Nasir Muhammad of Cairo, Orhan the Ottoman leader, Abu Sa’id—last of the Il-khan rulers, and Uzbeg—great khan of the Golden Horde). § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">The travels of Ibn Battuta contrast those of Marco Polo (fifty years earlier). Polo’s travels were always in foreign cultures, whereas Ibn Battuta always found Muslim communities in which his skills were valued. He found “mosques, schools, Sufi communities, and recognition of the Shari’a as the legal norm” almost everywhere he went. His mastery of Arabic was very useful, and members and leaders of the Muslim communities he visited were always eager to have a religious authority to advise them. § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Law or Islamic jurisprudence ( // fiqh) //<span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">, was the most “honored intellectual activity in the Muslim world.” Scholarship was considered a type of worship of Allah, so the study of jurisprudence was one of the highest acts of piety. One who engaged in // fiqh //<span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> (a // faqih) //<span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> was accepted only after lengthy, rigorous study, and therefore was respected for intelligence and longitude. § // Qadis //<span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">, or judges, were appointed by specific regimes, and their jobs depended on the mood those regimes were in. During the 8 th <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> century, dozens of “schools” (or “traditions of interpretation” of the law) developed, but most were unable to attract enough followers and faded away. By the 10 th <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> century, the general consensus was that no new schools were allowed to form, and by the 14 th <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> century, only four major schools remained: Maliki, Hanafi, Hanbali, and Shafi’i (Ibn Battuta was trained in the Maliki school). The schools, though very different, recognized the legitimacy of the others. § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">All schools admitted that in the process of // fiqh //<span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">, some degree of // ijtihad //<span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> or “struggle/effort” of one’s reasoning was necessary. They all acknowledged that personal judgement had to be used when interpreting texts or Hadith, but ONLY when the issues involved were not clearly and obviously addressed by the Qur’an or Hadith. Many // faqihs //<span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">, mostly from the Hanbali school, campaigned strongly against analogical reasoning. But by the 14 th <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> century, most members of all schools acknowledged that it was impossible not to use logic and good sense when attempting to find analogies between cases. § <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">The most original work in // fiqh //<span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> was completed between the 8 th <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> and 12 th <span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> centuries. Most of the ritual, family, and criminal law problems had been addressed during the first three centuries, but later law witnessed “increased sophistication of legal concepts” and greater precision of language. Issues needing to be addressed eventually declined in number, and the // faqihs //<span style="color: #984806; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> then had to solve legal issues with more clarity and subtlety. 11: The Closing of the Gate of Ijtihad? The Barieties of Religious Expression Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy **The closing of the gate if Ijtihad** During the 12th Century debate became prominent over whether Ijtihad was still necessary The debate was that many people thought that Ijtihad had reached its peak in the sense that there was very little new rulings over issues that continued to happen, where as other people felt that there was a constant need to revise the rulings for new circumstances By the 14th century majority of sunni scholars agreed that ijtihad was no longer an option for faqihs New problems continued to arise which needed ijtihad in order to be solved
 * Ibn Battuta** (1304-1368) Born in Tangier, Morocco
 * Law** (Islamic Jurisprudence)
 * Ijtihad - the ability to make a ruling on a legal issue within the community
 * Mujtahids - practitioners of ijtihad
 * Faqih - the method of determining Islamic Law (shari’a)
 * Jurists became active in solving these problems


 * They understood that circumstances change from time period to time period, and from location to location


 * When Jurists couldn’t agree on a solution they would consult the most prominent Jurists who would give Fatwas (legal rulings).


 * The most prominent Jurist was called the Shayhk al-islam or the Mufti

In Shi’ite Islam the Twelvers reached a point where they decided that Ijtihad needed to continue and accepted its practice By the 14th Century Sunnis found that they denied Ijtihad as being practible, but continued to use it, and Twelver Shi’ite continued to practice it but found they could only use it in limited situations. Like Christianity has lots of different Sects each of which practice Christianity different, Muslims are equally diverse in their belies and practices. Muslims in North Africa, Central Asia, and the littoral of the Indian Ocean inevitably received the ISlamic tradition through the filter of their respective cultural heritages. As a result they all will practice Islam different.
 * Shi’ite Jurists understood that they had to exercise with “prudence and caution” so as not to stray from the path of the Imams.
 * The Varieties of Religious Expression**

Islam has no equivalent of a Pope, or Patriarch who can monitor Orthodoxy within a group Kufr (unbelief) has been ascribed to different people or groups through Islamic history, who were thought to not be orthodox in their teachings, action, etc. In order to maintain consensus around the muslim world, sunni scholars corresponded with one each other regularly Many would travel during the hajj to Mecca to study with the scholars there, to ensure that their town or area was practicing a version of Islam similar to the Meccan Standard. This was primarily a more Sunni practice of Self-Censorship ensuring that they were all on the same level Khajarites also maintained contact with other scholars of their sect over large distances in order to ensure they were current and up to date with their practices Shi’ite:
 * “Orthodoxy” and “Heterodoxy”**
 * There have been Caliphs and Imams have tried but only were influential in a small space of time and physical area.
 * Ex: 7th century Khajaraites who thought all muslims who disagreed with them were outside the true faith
 * Early Shi’ite were considered unorthodox Muslims
 * Nusayrs - worship in home, don’t participate in ramada, drink wine regularly at services, believe in transmigration of the soul - they have been thought of as heretics by many Muslims
 * Early Sufis who claimed union with God
 * led by the Visible Imam had direct access to the “Divine Truth” and thus the divine practice
 * Led by a Hidden Imam had confidence he maintained direct communication with their scholars
 * Twelvers were confident that their scholars who practiced ijtihad were capable of determining the will of the Hidden Imam


 * Developed Doctrine that Hidden Imam would never allow Jurists to lead them astray, if two Jurists were ever in opposition and one was totally wrong, and there was no way to detect the error the Imam himself would intervene in person

Cohesion and common sense of identity did not mean homogeneity, Muslims developed distinct differences in the expression of Faith. There are plenty of subsects of the larger groups each with different traditions, etc.

12: The Proliferation of Sufi Groups Sufism Triumphant Sufism as Social Critique Ch. 11 pg.'s 308-313-post by Thomas Nance -suffering and uncertainties of the period- Sufi groups provide spiritual and material support-also common defense-“Sufism responded to a deep need” -tariqas-Sufi orders- satisfied needs of people- -ribats, zawiyas, khanaqas, tekkes-lodges-centers of worship
 * Proliferation of Sufi Groups-12th century- 14th**

-Sufism established in the Muslim East-(Iraq/Iran)-in Andalus -Sufism focus-inner personal/emotional relationship they sought with God- -recited mystical litanies-part of practice -Each order had distinct practices-sufi order’s common tradition, text, network, distinctive lifestyl that ethnically diverse societies of Islam shared in common-brought the Muslim umma together -Provided women with religious expression and leadership- -did not shatter any gender barriers but encouraged women’s participation -Celebrated piety of women-Ex. al-Sayyida Nafisa (great granddaughter of Hasan, celebrated for her learning and piety) and al-Sayyida Zaynab (daughter of Ali)- both are revered in tomb-mosques -women staffed some lodges, -women held their own Sufi meetings -some accorded status of Saint -Sufi Master-shaykh-taught how to achieve the “mystical experience” -counselors, preachers, prayer leaders, special rites such as circumcision, marriage, funerals-gave rulings as well -practiced medicine in some instances-power to heal -Revered as “Saint” or “friend of God” by extraordinary miracles, exceptional piety, ecstatic states, power of intercession -burial became shrine- looked to shaykhs’ tombs as place of spiritual power, place of festivals/pilgrimage-buried at lodge -Lodges became trade centers and place of refuge as well as place of worship- -shrines for past Shaykhs, place to settle disputes,
 * Sufism Triumphant**

-Ibo Taymiya-criticized veneration of saints-violation of Shari’a; believed it violated Islamic monotheism -Hanbali practiced Sufi meditation; regarded shrine visits as pre-Islamic idolatry “Sufi deviancy”- 13th century-rejection of mainstream Sufism- characterized by celibacy, asceticism, “middle-class sensibilities”- -malamatiya-Sufis so concerned with NOT parading their virtue that they committed unlawful acts-still recognized by other Sufis as sincere followers -13th century-Sufi Deviancy become a larger movement leading to the formation of groups such as: Qalandars, Haydaris, Bektashis, Madaris- individual members called dervishes- found in Anatolia, Iran and India -dervishes showed contempt of social conventions by rejecting family life, choosing celibacy, rarely bathing, wearing unusual clothing or no clothing at all, shaving body hair-identified as society’s “riff-raff”-many were offspring of society’s Elite not wanting to accept their inheritance-focused on establishing a relationship with God by abandoning society 13: Sufism, Syncretism, and Shi’sm Conclusion · During the century of Mongol rule in Iran, the composition of the population underwent a significant change. o Many Turks and Mongols began to migrate to Transoxiana and eastern Anatolia. o These nomadic peoples brought a change to the economy as well, as many areas were converted from agriculture into grazing areas. · There was a decline of urban life and new forms of social and religious organization also appeared. o The social organization became very tribal, led by Chiefs who ruled over people related by kinship ties. o The area suffered from raiding, extortion and rebellion. · Many Sufi-led movements began to appear, who resisted the oppression and exploitation. · Sufi doctrine stressed deliverance and reward, and many Sufis put a particular emphasis on following ‘Ali, Muhammad’s closest companion. o However, Sufi groups did not view themselves as Shi’ite. · Many Sufi groups emerged 1. Naqshbandi Order a. Central Asia and India b. Very strict followers of Islamic religious law c. Taught the “silent dhikr” as opposed to a vocal one. 2. Bektashi and Nusayri sects were very similar a. They both felt that many aspects of Islamic law, eg: daily prayers, fasting during Ramadan were unimportant. 3. The Alevi (or Alawi) a. They had teachings that were almost identical to Bektashi, but tended to be less educated and live in more rural areas. 4. The Safavids a. Founded by Shaykh Safi al-Din (1252-1334) b. Developed many schools, and expanded missionary work in Anatolia. c. At the beginning of the 16th century, they created an empire in Iran.
 * Sufism as a Social Critique**
 * Sufism, Syncretism and Shi'ism**